Everyday life exists of meeting familiar and unfamiliar faces. Unfamiliar faces, habits, beliefs and cultures are what constitutes ‘The Other’. Travelling and working abroad makes us much more aware of ‘The Other’. In the ‘Understanding the Other’ series of blogposts you learn more about the deeper, underlying layers of other cultures. In the process you become more aware of your own culture and life choices, opening the door for personal development and improving your social interactions with other cultures and lifestyle, either at home or abroad. This is part 3: Cultural values. Image by Public Domain Vectors.
Cultural values
Values are a crucial element of culture. If one simply looks at all the cultural phenomena visible on the surface, one may get the impression of an infinite number of differences that can’t possibly be listed or grouped. Values act as the underlying principles that guide behavior.
The iceberg
Metaphorically, culture is often represented as an iceberg. One sees items on the surface that represent the tangible aspect of culture (e.g. habits, rituals, laws and symbols) whereas the (much-larger) part under water represents the intangible aspects, i.e. the values.
Seven value dimensions
Building upon the work of renowned scholars such as Geert Hofstede, Fons Trompenaars and Edward T. Hall, Malewski (2005) identifies seven value dimensions that shape the way people think and act.
1. Personal identity
2. Power differential
3. Attitude to change
4. Notions of time
5. Communication style
6. Etiquette
7. Emotional expression
Personal identity (emphasis on the individual versus the group)
Individualistic societies can be defined as those where relationships between individuals are loose. Such societies value individual initiative and competitiveness. In terms of ego psychology, the individual identifies with himself rather than with some larger collective. The individual can be seen as structuring his life space by drawing tight rather than permeable ego boundaries between himself and relevant others.
In contrast, collectivism appreciates group effort and decision making through discussion. Identity is more strongly related to the group than the individual.
The United States is generally seen as the most individualistic society, followed by other English speaking counties and Europe. Latin America and Asia are more group-oriented cultures.
Power differential (low versus high hierarchical order)
Power distance is defined as “the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally”. In societies with a low power distance, social and corporate hierarchies are fairly flat and flexible. This means that people can raise themselves to positions of power through their ability to fulfill a certain mandate.
By contrast, in societies with a high power distance, only people with a certain family background, education, gender, or level of seniority can attain positions of power, creating a more stratified and rigid society.
Low power distance regions include protestant Europe, Israel, United States and Commonwealth. High power distance regions are considered to be Asia, Latin America, the Arab World and Catholic Europe.
Attitude to change (embracing versus avoiding change)
Another cultural variable is the degree to which people are willing to embrace uncertainty or change. In some societies, such as the United States and those influenced by Protestantism, people believe that they can shape their future through their own actions. They tend to be more comfortable with novel, risky, or ambiguous situations and feel that they can successfully manage such situations. Interestingly, the philosophy of fatalism (more visible in the Asian world) can sometimes also promote openness to risk.
Other cultures (e.g. Catholic Europe, Latin America and Japan) feel that the individual is only a small part of a larger society or tradition and has little influence on the way things are done, so it is best to go with the flow.
Notions of time (rigid versus fluid notions of time)
In some societies time is rigid: objectives must be reached within a specified time and tasks are scheduled accordingly. The logic is that getting more done in a given time frame leads to increased earnings (‘time is money’), so people tend to be in a rush to meet deadlines and value punctuality. This attitude extends to the social sphere, where people plan gatherings in advance and hosts expect guests to show up on time.
In other cultures, people consider the quality of the time spent as more important than the quantity of things that get done. Thus work can be interrupted to help a colleague or a friend. Deadlines and schedules tend to be fluid. At social events, guests may arrive much later than the scheduled time and family and friends usually welcome impromptu visits.
Notions of time are more rigid in Germanic countries, such as Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and in the United States, while time is more fluid in the Catholic European countries, such as France, Belgium, or Italy, as well as Latin America and Japan.
Communication style (direct versus indirect communication)
In some countries importance is placed on delivering a message as explicitly and directly as possible even if it involves a refusal, bad news, or negative feedback. People do not consider such communication offensive; rather, the recipient appreciates this because it allows him or her to take corrective measures.
In other cultures, conveyance of bad news or feedback tends to be more indirect or implicit, and may be achieved by omission, hints, or even intermediaries, to allow the recipient to save face. In these cultures it is common to avoid direct refusals out of concern for damaging the harmonious functioning of a group or relationship.
The United States, Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Germany, and New Zealand are cultures where direct communication is preferred, while people in Asia and Latin America convey their messages less explicitly.
Etiquette (informal versus formal business and social etiquette)
In informal societies such as the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Israel, job performance and moral uprightness matter most, while titles, family background, and outward appearance take second place. People tend to be on a first-name basis with each other and there are fewer explicit rules dictating social conduct, such as ‘you must stand in the presence of elders’ or ‘men shouldn’t wear hats indoors’. It is, however, very important to be respectful to all people, regardless of their social background.
In formal societies, including Asia and Europe, observing proper etiquette is at least as important as job performance and moral uprightness. There are often complex rules concerning the use of titles, precedence, proper attire, table manners, appropriate small talk, and so on.
Emotional expression (reserved versus affective expression)
Some societies consider it best to refrain from outwardly revealing thoughts and emotions, be this through facial expressions, bodily gestures, or an emotional tone of voice.
In other cultures, outward expressions of emotions are perfectly acceptable, and it is okay to hug and kiss colleagues and friends as a sign of welcome, or to show excitement, approval, or disagreement through facial expression and voice modulation.
Some of the more reserved countries or regions include Japan, China and Northern Europe, while Latin America and the Arab world tend to be more affective.
Go to part 4: Cultural distance
Related books (which include all references)
